Attitude and persuasion—Detailed explanation of the psychological effects of society and personality｜Famous collection of psychological effects

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Introduction: We are 'persuaded' every day, but we often don't notice it

Have you noticed that after reading too many advertisements, I actually like them? Or maybe others couldn't convince you at first, but after a while, you think he made sense? These are not coincidences, but attitudes and persuasion psychology effects are at work.

In social and personality psychology, 'persuasion' is not about forcing you to accept a certain point of view, but a process that subtly affects your judgment, feelings, and behavior. Research shows that people's attitudes are extremely susceptible to the 'unconscious psychological effect' . And these psychological effects are not metaphysics, but psychological laws that have been verified experimentally.

This article will take you to learn more about the 15 most important 'attitude and persuasion psychological effects'. Each one is easy to understand, equipped with experimental support and real cases, and can easily master it even if you don't have a psychological foundation.

Attitude and persuasion psychology effects include the following:

1. Mere-exposure Effect
2. Sleeper Effect
3. Credibility Amplification Effect
4. Psychological Reactance Effect
5. Backfire Effect
6. Emotional Contagion
7. Halo/Horns Effect
8. Primacy Effect
9. Recency Effect
10. Peripheral-Central Route Processing
11. Suggestibility
12. Authority Bias
13. Door-in-the-Face Effect
14. Foot-in-the-Door Effect
15. Low-ball Technique

Mere-exposure Effect

What is the pure exposure effect?

Mere Exposure Effect , also known as the simple contact effect , refers to people who have more favorable or higher preferences for something just because they have multiple contacts with it without any positive interaction or reward. In other words, the more we see or hear something, even if we don’t feel it at first, or even think it’s ordinary, the easier it is to like it as the number of contacts increases .

This effect is very common. It is not only applicable to interpersonal relationships, but also to almost all objects that can be 'touched' in advertising, brands, music, pictures, architectural styles, and even pet types.

The background source of pure exposure effect

The concept of 'pure exposure effect' was first proposed by American psychologist Robert Zajonc in 1968. Through a lot of experiments, he found that simply repeat contact can increase our favorability for a certain object, even if we are not aware of this repetition .

Zaronk's research was a challenge to traditional learning theory at that time. The traditional view believes that only through rewards or reinforcement can people become preferences for things. Zaronk's research shows: ' No reward is needed, just the increase in the number of times you are 'seeing' will increase in the degree of love. '

The core principle of pure exposure effect

1. A sense of familiarity creates a sense of security : the brain is born to be alert to the 'unknown', while a sense of familiarity brings safety and comfort. When we keep touching an object, our brain lowers its vigilance, thus gradually accepting it and even creating a sense of intimacy.
2. Processing Fluency : The easier it is to process information, the easier it is to feel 'positive emotions'. Repeated contact will make us familiar with the information and smooth processing, so we naturally like it more.
3. Cognitive comfort : Novel things require more cognitive resources, while familiar objects can make the brain 'efficacy'. This 'work-saving sense' will be interpreted by the brain as 'pleasure', thereby creating favorable feelings.

Experimental verification of pure exposure effect

Zaronk conducted a series of classic experiments in 1968, one of which is famous:

He showed the participants the experiment to some meaningless graphics (such as strange foreign characters) and faces, each of which appeared in different numbers. The experimental results show that the more times the subject appears, the more 'favorable' or 'more attractive' they are evaluated. Even if participants don’t remember seeing these graphics or faces, they prefer objects that have “see more times”.

Other follow-up studies also found:

• Playing a song repeatedly and people will gradually like it;
• If you meet a stranger frequently, you will feel good about even if you don’t communicate;
• Brand names that appear repeatedly on web pages or advertisements are easier to remember and more likely to be liked.

Realistic application of pure exposure effect

• Advertising and brand marketing : Advertisers frequently place advertisements on the same brand to enhance consumers' familiarity with the brand, thereby enhancing favorable and willingness to buy. For example: Even if you have never bought a certain brand of beverage, after seeing its advertisements repeatedly, you may have the impression that 'this brand seems to be quite reliable.'
• Interpersonal relationships : We tend to like people we often meet, such as colleagues, classmates, and neighbors, even if we don’t have in-depth interactions. 'Fall in love over time' is likely to be the pure exposure effect at work.
• Social media operations : Internet celebrities or brands frequently appear on your homepage. Even if you are not interested in them at first, you may click in and even start to like them over time.
• Job search or courtship strategy : Although the way of constantly 'making a sense of existence' seems to be annoying, as long as it is not annoying and appearing in front of the other party many times may indeed increase the other party's favorability.

Critical Analysis of Pure Exposure Effect

• Overexposed can lead to 'visual fatigue' and even resentment. For example, if an advertisement appears too frequently, users may be 'very annoyed'. Psychology calls it the 'saturation effect' or 'reverse exposure effect', that is, the upper limit of your favorite will hang inverted as the number of times increases.
• Not suitable for all types of stimuli, if the initial contact is negative (such as the visual stimuli is too ugly, or the sound is too harsh), repeated contact may not increase favorable feelings, but will aggravate disgust.
• Although familiarity makes people feel safe, the human brain also desires 'newness'. The pure exposure effect is mainly applicable to building favorable feelings in the early stage and cannot explain long-term attractiveness.
• Like something just because you 'see more' doesn't necessarily mean it is 'better'. This is a challenge for consumer judgment and independent thinking.

Sleeper Effect

What is the dormant effect?

The Sleeper Effect is a very interesting phenomenon of persuasion and attitude change in social psychology. It refers to: information conveyed by sources of information that were initially considered unreliable or unreliable, over time, is increasingly accepted and believed , even if people are skeptical of it at the beginning. This effect is called the 'dorman' effect because information begins to work after 'sleeping' in the brain for a period of time.

Background source of dormant effect

This effect was first discovered by Carl Hovland and others when studying wartime propaganda in the 1940s. At that time, they observed that although information from distrustworthy sources (such as the media of the enemy) did not initially affect the audience's attitude, after a while, people gradually forgot where the information came from, but remembered the information itself, and began to be influenced by it .

Hofland and his research group are central figures in Yale's Attitude Change and Persuasion Research Program, whose research lays the foundation for the 'communication-persuasion' model in modern society and personality psychology.

The core principle of the dormant effect

The mechanism behind the dormant effect can be simply understood as: separation of information and source .

Usually, when we receive a message, we evaluate its credibility, especially focusing on whether the source is reliable. If the source is untrustworthy, we tend to ignore this information.

But over time:

1. People gradually forget the source of information (source forgetting) ;
2. The information content itself is retained in memory ;
3. Since the source no longer affects the assessment, the information that was originally ignored began to become persuasive .

This is like a 'chronic poison'. At first you feel harmless and even rejected, but over time, you begin to agree with its 'truth', but forget that it originally came from a place you don't trust.

Experimental verification of dormant effect

Classic experimental evidence of the dormant effect comes from the following experimental designs:

Hovland & Weiss experiment at Yale University (1951)

Experimental process:

• The subjects were divided into two groups;
• Two groups read articles with the same content separately (such as about nuclear energy safety);
• The only difference is: one group of informed sources of information are authoritative experts , and the other group of informed sources of information are media that are not trusted ;
• At the beginning, content from experts is more convincing;
• But four weeks later , the two groups of people's acceptance of the information became closer, and some people even increased their acceptance of information from 'untrustworthy' sources.

Conclusion: After the information is separated from the source, the information itself may gradually be accepted.

Realistic application of dormant effect

• Advertising and Marketing: Some brands will deliberately use controversial or “whitewashed” spokespersons or marketing methods. Even if they are questioned at first, but over time, the audience may forget the controversy and only remember the advertising content or brand.
• Rumors and misinformation dissemination: A rumor or unverified information was questioned as fake news when it was first released; but over time, some people forgot that it was denied, but instead began to feel that 'it seems to make sense'; this is why some online rumors will appear repeatedly, without being stiff.

Critical Analysis of Dorman Effect

Although the dormant effect is widely cited, it does not hold in all situations. Some studies have found that the dormant effect is variable and situation-dependent ; sometimes, even when time passes, people can still remember the source, so there is no 'separation of source and information' happens. If the information content itself is extremely unreasonable or lacks logic, it will not be easily accepted even if the source is forgotten. Some studies have pointed out that the dormant effect is more likely to occur under repeated exposure; the effect is not obvious after a single message transmission.

Credibility Amplification Effect

What is the credibility amplification effect?

The credibility amplification effect refers to: when people express information that they are not sure of (such as 'I'm not sure, but I heard...'), it will make the audience feel that the information is more credible , rather than untrustworthy. In other words, the expressor actively acknowledges his uncertainty, which will instead enhance the other party's trust in his information .

This is a seemingly counterintuitive psychological phenomenon: the statement 'I'm not sure' makes people more convinced.

Background source of credibility amplification effect

The credibility amplification effect comes from the research of interpersonal communication and persuasion psychology, which was first observed by psychologists when studying the effects of 'expressor self-disclosure' and 'verbal modification' on information credibility.

The traditional view is that the more confident the information is, the easier it is to be accepted. But practical research has found that if a person expresses information with a slight uncertainty , he will appear more honest, unbiased, and has no intention of manipulation, making the audience more willing to believe his words.

This effect is closely related to 'information honesty', and people subconsciously judge:

'If what he said is not completely certain but still dares to say it, it may be true.'

Core Principle

The core principle of the credibility amplification effect can be summarized into the following points:

1. Uncertain language → Reduce sense of manipulation : Using “uncertain language” (such as “may”, “as if”, “I’m not quite sure”) will make the listener feel that the speaker is not manipulating them , thereby reducing psychological defense.
2. Appears more honest → Increase trust : The speaker actively admits that he is not completely sure will be considered more honest and true , unlike some people who blindly 'overconfidence' will trigger doubts.
3. Reverse Psychological Effect → Inspire Independent Judgment : When facing 'abnormal' information, listeners often process this information more seriously , thus forming a firmer belief.
4. Pragmatic Linguistic Mechanism → Conversational Meaning Reasoning : Listeners tend to think that if the speaker is not sure, they will not mention a certain fact. Since it has been said, it means there is a certain basis .

Experimental verification of credibility amplification effect

In multiple experiments, the researchers found that by controlling expression:

• When the same message is expressed in 'determined tone' and 'uncertained tone' , the subjects are more inclined to believe in the statement 'I am not sure, but I heard...';
• In scoring for judgment of credibility, moderately uncertain expression scored higher than expression of absolute tone;
• In some scenarios (such as suggestions, recommendations, predictions), a reserved tone is more likely to be accepted and adopted.

For example:

The researchers asked the two groups to hear two passages:
A: “This method is absolutely effective.”
B: 'I'm not sure, but I've seen some people use this method and work well.'
Most people prefer to believe B's statement and are willing to try it.

Realistic application of credibility amplification effect

• Doctors communicate with patients : When doctors express 'This drug is generally effective for most people, but everyone may respond differently', patients will feel more honest, have an increased sense of trust , and are more willing to cooperate with treatment.
• Content creators or self-media express their opinions : using a tone of 'my personal guess' or 'it is said to be so' can instead enhance readers' recognition and favorable feelings for their content and reduce the risk of being accused of 'nonsense' or 'leading the rhythm' .
• Marketing and sales scenarios : Sales staff say 'This feature may be more suitable for your use scenario' than 'This feature is absolutely effective for you', which makes people feel more authentic and reliable, thereby increasing their willingness to buy .
• Public speech or media coverage : The uncertainty of speakers expressing their views moderately (such as: 'My personal understanding is...welcome to discuss') is more likely to gain the favor and recognition of the audience.

Critical Analysis of the Amplification Effect of Credibility

Although this effect has a positive effect in most scenarios, there are also the following limitations and critical angles :

1. Overly uncertain → Loss of authority : If the expressor keeps emphasizing “uncertainty”, “maybe”, “possible”, it may make people feel that he is not professional and thus affects the overall influence.
2. Different effects for different groups : some listeners prefer authoritative expression and trust more on the statement of 'decisiveness'. Cultural background and personal cognitive style may affect the intensity of the effect.
3. Invalid when the information is seriously wrong : If the facts are wrong, people will not believe it because of this. So it cannot conceal the nature of false information .

Psychological Reactance Effect

What is the psychological resistance effect?

The psychological resistance effect , also known as 'psychological reversal' or 'reversal psychology', refers to an uncomfortable emotional reaction when an individual perceives his or her freedom or choice is deprived, restricted, or threatened, which in turn inspires them to try to restore this freedom to motive and behavior.

Simply put: People are born to dislike being controlled . When you tell someone “you can’t do this,” he probably wants to do it more. It’s not because of how attractive this matter itself is, but because the right to free choice is threatened .

Background source of resistance effect

The psychological resistance effect was first proposed by American psychologist Jack W. Brehm in 1966. In his founding of 'Psychological Reactance Theory':

• Free choice is a basic psychological need.
• When people feel that their freedom of behavior is threatened, an inherent resistance is created.
• This resistance is not only a psychological emotion, but also a driving force that drives people to take action to restore freedom.

Experimental verification of psychological resistance effect

Brem's research team conducted an experiment in the 1960s:
They placed some toys on the table in the kindergarten classroom, one of which was covered with glass, and told the children: 'This toy cannot be played with now.'

It turned out that banned toys attract children's attention more than other toys . When they can choose toys later, they are more inclined to choose the one that was banned just now. This experiment clearly demonstrates that 'limited freedom' will enhance people's interest and motivation for restricted objects.

Another related experiment comes from the marketing field:

Researchers showed two types of jams in supermarkets, one marked as 'limited quantity, stop selling out', and the other is placed normally. As a result, the sales volume of the former is significantly higher than the latter. This is because 'scarcity' makes people feel that 'freedom of choice is disappearing', which stimulates psychological resistance and desire to buy.

Realistic application of psychological resistance effect

The psychological resistance effect not only exists in the laboratory, but it is widely present in various fields such as our life, business, education, and interpersonal communication:

1. Advertising and Marketing : Using scarce statements such as 'last day', 'only 50 people', 'missing no more' will stimulate consumers' motivation to buy; 'limited discounts' and 'rush-to-buy' also utilize the psychological resistance mechanism: you are not in a hurry to buy, but once you see 'it's gone immediately', you don't want to miss it.
2. Adolescent Education : Teens are one of the most psychologically resistant groups. When parents forcefully prohibit them from doing something, such as 'not making this friend' and 'not playing this game', it may lead to stronger rebellious behavior. The correct strategy is to express concerns in an equal and open manner, rather than just suppressing them .
3. Interpersonal communication : If you try to convince others too strongly, it is likely that the other party will feel rebellious and unwilling to adopt your point of view; but if you use 'soft guidance' or provide the right to choose, it is easier to reach an agreement.

Critical Analysis of Psychological Resistance Effect

Although the psychological resistance effect reveals humans’ cherishment of freedom, it is not omnipotent. Some people have obedient personalities, trust and authority, and are less affected by psychological resistance; while people with strong autonomy and high self-esteem are more likely to show strong resistance. The excessive use of 'limiting freedom' strategies (such as forced pop-ups and blocking choices) in certain marketing methods may cause user churn or negative brand impressions.

Backfire Effect

What is the reverse fire effect?

The backfire effect refers to: when people encounter information that challenges their beliefs, they will not only not change their views, but instead become more determined in their original beliefs . If you use evidence to refute other people's wrong views, they will not only not believe it, but will instead stick to their original position .

This is a manifestation of the human mind defense mechanism, which shows that people do not always process information rationally, especially when the information involves their existing values, beliefs, and identities.

Background source of the reverse fire effect

The word 'Backfire Effect' was first proposed by psychologists in the early 2000s and developed on the basis of classic theories such as Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Motivated Reasoning .

One of its proposers was American psychologists Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler. They studied how people correct misinformation and found that corrective measures sometimes not only fail, but will deepen the deep-rooted roots of misunderstandings . This is the origin of 'backfire' (literally 'reaction'.

The core psychological mechanism of the reverse fire effect

The reason why the reverse fire effect occurs is usually related to the following psychological mechanisms:

1. Cognitive Dissonance : When a person’s perspective is challenged, a psychological discomfort (dissonance) will occur. In order to alleviate this discomfort, people are more inclined to deny new information and defend old beliefs.
2. Motivated Reasoning : When people process information, they do not analyze objectively, but 'think with purpose'. They will give priority to information that supports their own views and resist opposite information .
3. Identity-protective cognition : Some views have been deeply bound to a person's social identity, group ownership, and emotional value. When you question these views, the other party will feel an attack on its 'self' , which will arouse stronger resistance.

Experimental verification of the reverse fire effect

Research by Nyhan and Reifler (2010)

They showed a fake news (such as “Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq”) and then provided real data to correct it. turn out:

Some of the corrected subjects not only did not change their views, but instead believed in the original false information.

This study demonstrates the existence of the reverse fire effect for the first time.

Cognitive psychology research by Lewandowsky et al.

Research shows that in situations where the amount of information is large, the structure is complex, and the emotional color is strong, the counterfire effect is more likely to be triggered . In addition, the more people who are devoted to a certain point of view, the more likely they are to have a 'rebound' phenomenon when they are corrected.

Realistic application of the reverse fire effect

1. Social media debate : Have you seen this kind of scene in the Moments, Weibo, and TikTok comment sections? When someone pointed out that a rumor is not true, the comment section shows replies such as 'You are just whitewashing' and 'You believe him and you are stupid' ? This is the embodiment of the reverse fire effect.
2. Intergenerational communication in the family : When you try to use scientific data to convince your elders that some health care products are useless and that some 'folk remedies' are pseudoscience, the other party may not only not believe you, but instead say that you are 'too young and ignorant' and continue to stick to your own judgment.

Critical Analysis of the Backfire Effect

While the reverse fire effect may sound frustrating, it also teaches us some important communication principles:

1. Emotions are preceded by reason, empathy first and then communication : If you want to change others' perspectives, you must first understand the other person's emotional position and background , and avoid direct confrontation and criticism.
2. Use 'storytelling' to spread information : pure data and logic may not be more touching than a true and credible story.
3. Indirect influence is better than positive conflict : gradually guide the other party to change their views by shaping the environment, adjusting the narrative angle, and introducing third-party neutral information.

Emotional Contagion

What is the emotional infection effect?

Emotional Contagion refers to: when you observe other people's emotions, you will unconsciously imitate, synchronize and even feel the same emotional experience of the other party , as if you are 'infected'.

Simply put—
If you see someone laughing all the time, you may also laugh unconsciously; if you stay among a group of silent and nervous people, you will also feel depressed. This is the emotional infection effect at work.

It is an irrational, nonverbal, and automatic psychological and behavioral process that can occur between people and spread across a large scale in groups.

Background source of emotional infection effect

This concept was first systematically proposed by psychologist Elaine Hatfield and others in 1993, and has established its mechanism of action in human emotions through multiple experiments.

Emotional infection is actually an evolutionary product of human society. We live in groups and need to understand, coordinate and share the same feeling with each other so that we can better cooperate and survive. Therefore, an 'automatic imitation system' has been developed in the brain to help us feel the emotions of others quickly.

Scientific research has found that mirror neuron systems may play a key role in it. Mirror neurons allow us to generate similar activations in the brain when we see others performing movements, expressions or expressing emotions, thus 'synchronizing emotions.'

The core principle of emotional infection effect

The process of emotional infection can be roughly divided into three steps:

1. Recognition of emotional expression : We perceive other people's emotional state through their expressions, tone, body language, etc. For example: When you see a person frowning and trembling, you can immediately feel that they may be angry or sad.
2. Non-conscious imitation : You will unconsciously imitate the other person's facial expressions, voice tone, posture, etc. This kind of imitation does not happen intentionally, but subconsciously. For example, you laugh when you hear others laugh, and you will also beat when you see others yawn.
3. Emotional Resonance : Imitation triggers the emotional mechanisms in your brain, allowing you to 'experience' similar emotions. This step is the key point in the occurrence of 'infection'.

Experimental verification of emotional infection effect

✔Classic Experiment 1: Synchronization of micro-expression imitation and heart rate

Research by psychologist Dimberg found that when people see others expressing angry or happy expressions, facial muscles respond accordingly in milliseconds , even if they are not aware of it.

✔Classic Experiment 2: Telephone Customer Service Experiment

Some studies conducted field tests in call centers: when customer service is in a stable mood and has a pleasant tone, customers are more likely to show satisfaction and cooperation; while emotionally anxious customer service will make customers show impatientness and even complain faster.

✔Subgroup effect research

In natural disasters, sports competitions or gatherings, the emotions of large-scale populations (panic, excitement, sadness, etc.) often spread in a very short period of time. This phenomenon is often called 'group emotional infection'.

Realistic application of emotional infection effect

• A positive emotional leader will increase the morale and cohesion of the entire team through emotional infection; on the contrary, if the leader is often anxious or angry, the team may also become depressed and inefficient.
• The stable and positive emotions of sales personnel or customer service will make customers feel trust and favorable, thereby increasing the transaction rate.
• The emotional impact between husband and wife, lovers and roommates is extremely significant. If one party is in a negative state for a long time, the other party is also easily 'dragged into the water'.

Critical Analysis of Emotional Infection Effect

Although emotional infection can promote communism and social interaction, it may also lead to negative phenomena such as group panic, online violence, and rumors spread . When you are driven by other people's emotions, you may ignore your rational analysis and judgment and make regretful decisions (such as emotional shopping, emotional resignation, etc.). Some marketing, publicity and even fraudulent behaviors may use emotional infection mechanisms to influence your behavioral decisions by creating emotional stimuli .

Halo/Horns Effect

What is the halo/sharp angle effect?

The halo effect refers to when a person has some positive characteristics, people tend to think that he is equally excellent in other aspects , that is, generalize with points and by partiality . If you think a person is 'very handsome', you may subconsciously think that he is 'smart', 'kind' and 'professional' - this is called the halo effect .

On the contrary, a disadvantage may also cause you to deny all of its advantages - this is called the sharp corner effect . The sharp angle effect is also called the reverse halo effect. It means that when a person is considered to have some negative characteristics, people will underestimate or even deny his abilities or qualities in other aspects .

Background source for halo/sharp angle effect

The 'halo effect' was first proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1920. In his study of officers' assessment of soldiers, he found that when soldiers scored high in one aspect (such as appearance and manners), they also scored high in other unrelated aspects (such as intelligence and sense of responsibility) .

This shows that when humans evaluate others in an overall manner, they are often susceptible to strong influences of first impressions or certain characteristics , resulting in distortion of judgment.

Experimental verification of halo/sharp angle effect

• In 1977, American psychologists Nisbett and Wilson conducted classic experiments, allowing subjects to watch two nearly identical teaching videos, one of which had a smile on his face and the other with a cold tone. Results: The former was rated as smarter and more organized; the latter was considered to be less capable. The only difference is attitude and expression , which proves the huge impact of the halo effect.

Similar research is also applied to multiple scenarios such as job interviews, court judgments, advertising endorsements, etc.

Realistic application of halo/sharp angle effect

• The interviewer may mistakenly think that the applicant is also very capable of working because he is dressed appropriately and politely; or underestimate the applicant's other abilities because his resume is average. It is often emphasized in HR training to 'structured interviews' to avoid this bias.
• Products endorsed by celebrities can sell well even if the product itself is of average quality; because people will transfer their favorability towards celebrities to the product, which is a typical halo effect.
• Teachers may think that students have good discipline and personality because they have good grades; while students with poor grades may be easily overlooked even if they perform well in other aspects. This may have a 'labeling' effect on students and form self-fulfilling prophecies .
• Once the impression of a partner or friend is fixed (for example, if the other person is smart), it is easy to turn a blind eye to his mistakes; or, conversely, once a negative impression of someone is made, even a misunderstanding will deepen into prejudice.

Critical Analysis of Halo/Sharp Angle Effect

Although these two effects are very common in life, they are actually a kind of 'cognitive bias' , which means that our brains like to 'be lazy' and replace comprehensive judgment with existing impressions .

Hazards include:

• Misjudgment of others : linking irrelevant traits, leading to unfair views;
• Influencing decision-making : make irrational choices when selecting people, careers, and products;
• Deepening prejudice : Strengthening stereotypes and pose psychological burden to individuals;
• Repressing growth : People who are covered by negative labels are easily denied and are not conducive to their development.

How to reduce the impact?

1. Delay judgment : Spend more time to understand someone and don’t rush to draw conclusions;
2. Sub-item evaluation : distinguishing people’s abilities in different aspects, not comprehensively;
3. Multiple sources of information : Avoid looking at only 'first impression' or 'single label';
4. Reflect on one's own prejudice : Aware of the existence of these effects and actively remind yourself to look at people objectively.

Primacy Effect

What is the primacy effect?

Primacy Effect refers to: when people receive a series of information, they tend to remember the information they first obtain , and this 'preconceived' impression will greatly affect our overall judgment of things or others. Especially in interpersonal communication, first impressions often affect our subsequent views and evaluation of someone . Even if the subsequent information conflicts with the initial impression, it is difficult to completely change the initial impression.

A summary of this sentence is: 'Be preconceived, it is difficult to change later.'

The background source of the primitive effect

This effect can be traced back to the 1950s, when American psychologist Solomon Asch studied the formation of impressions . Through a series of experiments, he found that people's impression of a person will be significantly affected by the order in which information is presented.

Ashe believes that the earliest information obtained will establish an 'interpretation framework' in the brain, and the subsequent new information will often be 'filtered' or 'distorted' to adapt to this framework . Therefore, people will unconsciously 'interpret' subsequent information based on their initial impressions rather than objectively evaluating it.

Experimental verification of the primitive effect

Ashi conducted a classic experiment in the 1950s:

He provided subjects with two descriptions of someone, with exactly the same vocabulary, but different orders:

• Version A: Smart, diligent, impulsive, stubborn, picky
• Version B: picky, stubborn, impulsive, diligent, smart

Although the words are exactly the same, most subjects thought that the person in version A was more positive and likable , while the person in version B was more negative and harder to get along with .

The reason is that in version A, the two positive words 'smart' and 'diligence' appear at the forefront, establishing a positive impression framework, and the negative words behind them are interpreted as 'small shortcomings';
In version B, negative vocabulary comes first and positive vocabulary comes later, and people have preconceivedly classified this person as 'annoying'.

Psychological mechanism of primitive effect

1. Limited attention resources : Human attention is limited, and the information obtained earlier occupies the main cognitive resources.
2. Cognitive framework effect : Early information constructed an interpretive model, and subsequent information is often 'absorbed' or 'filtered'.
3. Memory Advantages : Cognitive psychology has found that the earliest input information is 'precipitated' more firmly in memory.

Realistic application of the primitive effect

• During the interview, the first few minutes determine the interviewer’s basic impression of you . For example, if you smile confidently, have a decent appearance and a polite tone when you first enter the door, then your subsequent performance will be more likely to be forgiven even if there are some minor problems.
• In the first meeting between people (such as blind dates, customer meetings, face-to-face courses), the first sentence, the first look of dressing, and the way of handshaking will deeply affect the other person's impression of you 'overall'.
• In advertising marketing, merchants will put the most touching selling points at the forefront , such as 'natural no additions', 'received a certain award', and 'limited time discounts' to establish a good first impression.

Critical Analysis of the Primary Effect

Although the primacy effect is very common, it is not irreversible and in some cases weakens or fails:

1. When there is enough information , subsequent information will be gradually remembered and affected.
2. Strong contrasting information (such as strong moral errors or amazing performance) can change the first impression.
3. Continuous contact and communication can break the initial impression and form a more comprehensive view.
4. Deliberate cognitive reflection : consciously 'bounce out of the first impression' to analyze and judge, which will help reduce bias.

Recency Effect

What is the proximal effect?

Recency Effect refers to a psychological phenomenon in which we remember the information we recently received more clearly and have a greater impact when recalling a series of information.

For example: If you just finished an interview with 10 people introducing themselves, the easiest thing you may remember is what the last few people said. This is the proximal effect at work.

它是序列位置效应（Serial Position Effect）的一部分——这个效应指出，人们对一个信息序列的开头（首因效应）和结尾（近因效应）往往记得最清楚，中间的容易被遗忘。

近因效应的来源与实验依据

实验经典：阿特金森与希弗林的记忆模型（1968）

心理学家Atkinson 和Shiffrin提出人类记忆的多阶段模型，将记忆分为：

• 感觉记忆（Sensory memory）
• 短期记忆（Short-term memory）
• 长期记忆（Long-term memory）

在他们的实验中，受试者会被要求记住一串词语，比如15个。结果显示：

• 最前面几个词（首因效应）记得比较牢，因为它们有机会进入长期记忆。
• 最后几个词（近因效应）记得也很好，因为它们仍保留在短期记忆中。

如果立刻测试记忆，近因效应很明显；但如果在记忆后延迟几分钟再测试，近因效应就会消失，这说明近因效应与短期记忆密切相关。

近因效应的核心原理

1. 工作记忆的限制：我们的短期记忆能同时容纳的信息有限（约7±2个信息块），而刚刚获得的信息仍停留在短期记忆中，因此更容易被回忆。
2. 信息的“新鲜度”优势：新近接收的信息在心理上有“更重要”“更相关”的感觉，因此在人们做判断、选择或回忆时会产生更大影响。

近因效应的现实应用

• 在教学过程中，老师若把重点内容放在课程结尾部分，学生更可能记住。因此：结尾安排总结和重点复习，有助于加深印象。每节课结束前复述一次重要知识点，有利于记忆保持。
• 在人际沟通或求职面试中，临别印象尤为重要。最后几分钟你说的内容，可能对评委或面试官印象最大。建议：面试结束前，用一句话总结你的亮点；演讲最后给出鼓舞人心的结语，容易被记住。
• 营销人员常在介绍产品后最后强调一次促销信息或赠品福利，是因为此时用户更容易记住并形成购买决策。

近因效应的批判性分析

不是所有情境都能发挥近因效应，如果中间发生了干扰（比如广告播放后，立刻切入别的内容），近因效应会被打断；在延时回忆（比如数小时后再测试）中，近因效应消失，而首因效应更明显。虽然在考试前突击复习会带来“近因记忆”，但如果不进入长期记忆体系，记得快，忘得也快。因此：不要把全部希望寄托在临时记忆上；建议配合首因效应（在开头和结尾都强化记忆）。

外周-中枢分离效应（Peripheral-Central Route Processing）

什么是外周-中枢分离效应？

人们在面对说服信息时，会依据自身的动机和能力，通过两种不同的“路径”来理解并形成态度：

• 中枢路径（Central Route） ：仔细思考、理性分析信息的内容，形成稳定、深层的态度。
• 外周路径（Peripheral Route） ：不怎么认真思考，仅靠表面线索（如说话者外貌、语气、权威性等）作出判断，形成的态度较浅、易变。

外周-中枢分离效应的背景来源

外周-中枢分离效应（Peripheral-Central Route Processing / Elaboration Likelihood Model, ELM）是由心理学家Richard E. Petty 和John Cacioppo 在1980年代提出的一个经典说服理论模型，用来解释人们在面对说服信息时是如何加工和形成态度变化的。它并不是单纯的“效应”而是一个系统性理论，但在态度与说服类心理学效应中具有极高的影响力，常作为“外周-中枢加工路径效应”被广泛引用。他们发现，说服的有效性并不单单取决于信息内容本身，还取决于听众是否：

• 有动力去思考信息（比如信息是否与他们相关）
• 有能力去理解信息（比如认知资源、注意力是否充足）

于是，他们提出：
如果受众愿意且能思考，他们会采用中枢路径；
如果不愿意或不能深思熟虑，就会采用外周路径。

外周-中枢分离效应的实验验证

Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman (1981)的实验非常有代表性。

实验设计：

他们请大学生阅读一篇建议在未来一年实施“毕业综合考试”的政策文章。然后操控三个因素：

1. 说话者的可信度：普通学生vs. 普林斯顿教授
2. 论点的强度：强有力vs. 弱论点
3. 政策是否影响自己：马上实施vs. 10年后实施

turn out:

• 如果政策马上影响自己，学生会认真思考信息本身——中枢路径起作用，论点强弱直接决定态度改变；
• 如果政策10年后才实施，学生兴趣不大，就会根据说话者身份判断是否接受——外周路径起作用。

外周-中枢分离效应的现实应用

• 营销广告：奢侈品广告常通过“美丽模特+氛围感”走外周路径吸引冲动消费。医疗产品或保健品广告，则试图通过“数据、临床报告、专家背书”走中枢路径说服你理性判断。
• 教育传播：教师讲课时若内容逻辑清晰、重点突出，学生会走中枢路径认真听讲。如果学生本就不感兴趣，可能只因为老师讲得风趣幽默（外周线索）而表面接受内容。

外周-中枢分离效应的批判性分析

外周-中枢分离效应有效解释了为什么相同信息对不同人效果不同；真实生活中，中枢路径和外周路径常常交叉，很难完全划分；也忽略了情绪、文化差异等变量对说服过程的影响；该模型偏重理性加工视角，但很多人类决策其实是情绪驱动。

说服的效果不仅取决于内容本身，还取决于受众的动机和认知状态。想让别人“真心接受你的观点”？ → 设计逻辑严谨、证据充分的信息，引导其走中枢路径；想快速赢得表面认同？ → 利用权威、名人效应、包装美学等外周线索提升影响力。

暗示效应（Suggestibility）

什么是暗示效应？

暗示效应（Suggestibility） ，是指一个人在没有意识到的情况下，受到外界言语、图像或行为的潜移默化影响，从而改变自己的记忆、判断或行为的心理现象。

简单来说，就是别人“轻轻一说”，你就不自觉地相信了，甚至做出了改变，而你自己可能并没有察觉到是受了对方的影响。

背景来源

“暗示”这个词在心理学领域由来已久，最早可以追溯到19世纪末的催眠研究，但真正让“暗示效应”走进实验心理学视野的，是社会心理学与认知心理学的交汇。后被应用于记忆研究、广告影响和儿童心理学中。心理学家发现，在某些情况下，人们会将别人的说法“内化”为自己的记忆或观点。

著名心理学家Elizabeth Loftus在20世纪70年代的记忆实验中，发现人们对事件的回忆会被语言暗示所“改写”。例如，当被问到“你有没有看到那个撞坏的车头”时，参与者更可能报告看到严重损坏的车，即使实际上没有。

这类研究揭示了一个令人惊讶的事实：我们的记忆和判断，并不像我们想象的那样牢不可破，暗示性语言就能悄悄改写我们的认知。

核心原理

暗示效应主要依赖于信息的重复性、来源可信度以及接收者的心理状态。当一个人处于压力、疲劳、信任他人或缺乏信息的状态下，更容易接受暗示性信息。暗示效应的运作机制通常包括以下几个心理过程：

1. 认知启动（Priming） ：某些词汇或图像会激活我们大脑中相关的概念，使我们更容易按照特定方向去解读信息。
2. 社会认同需求（Need for conformity） ：人类天生具有从众倾向，尤其在不确定或不熟悉的情境中，我们会更容易接受外部的信息作为“判断依据”。
3. 信任权威或可信来源：如果暗示来自“可信的人”或专家形象，我们会更容易接受其信息并加以内化。
4. 元认知低警觉：当人们没有开启“批判性思维模式”时，更容易被暗示影响，尤其在放松、疲惫、信任或焦虑状态下。

Experimental basis

心理学家Elizabeth Loftus在关于虚假记忆的研究中发现，如果给参与者展示模糊的事件再进行引导性提问（如“那个穿红衣服的人呢？”），参与者往往会产生“我好像看到过”这样的错误记忆。在1974年，Elizabeth Loftus 与John Palmer 进行了一项经典实验：

实验者向被试展示一段汽车相撞的视频。
然后问他们：“两辆车撞击（smashed）时的速度是多少？”
或者：“两辆车碰撞（hit）时的速度是多少？”

结果：使用“撞击（smashed）”一词时，参与者给出的车速平均值更高，且更可能回忆起现场有碎玻璃（实际上并没有）。

这个实验证明了：仅仅改变一个词语的强度，就足以影响人对事件的回忆。

现实应用

• 广告营销：- 商家使用“中立但引导性”的词语影响消费者判断。比如“超值”、“限量”、“医师推荐”，即使并未明示其真实来源，也可能触发信任与购买。
• 媒体影响：新闻、影视、社交平台通过特定措辞引导舆论方向，比如将行为描述为“冲撞”还是“接触”，影响观众判断。
• 法律与司法：警察或律师在提问时使用“引导性问题”，可能无意中影响证人的记忆。因此，在现代司法系统中，越来越强调“非暗示性”提问技术。
• 教育与儿童发展：教师或家长的一句话，比如“你是不是故意的？”、“是不是你打破的？”，可能在不自觉中让孩子“接受”并改变记忆。

批判性分析

暗示效应提醒我们人类记忆和判断并不总是可靠。在法律领域，证人证词容易被误导；在日常交流中，我们也可能因“别人说了什么”而记错原本发生的事情。这对辨别真伪、培养独立判断力非常重要。儿童、老年人或焦虑状态下的人群更容易受暗示，可能导致信息操控或欺骗。

权威效应（Authority Bias）

什么是权威效应？

权威效应是指人们倾向于盲目相信权威人物的言行，即使这些内容可能与事实相悖，或者不符合个人价值观。权威不仅限于职位高的人，也包括专家、父母、老师、医生等在某领域被认定为“比我懂”的人。

背景来源

权威效应起源于社会心理学领域，与“服从与社会地位”的关系密切。人类在群体生活中通常会依赖经验更丰富或地位更高的人做决策，这是出于安全和效率的本能。例如，原始社会中人们会听从酋长或长者的判断，现代社会中也依然如此：人们往往认为专家不会错，领导更有远见，名人说的更可信。

这一效应由斯坦利·米尔格拉姆（Stanley Milgram）的服从实验广泛传播。他的实验揭示出普通人在权威指令下可能做出违背良知的行为。

核心原理

人类社会中“服从权威”是从小被教育和强化的认知模式。我们倾向于认为权威知道得更多、判断更准确，服从权威也能减少思考成本和决策负担。权威效应的形成，主要有以下几个心理机制：

1. 权威即可信：人们下意识地认为专家、医生、教授、名人等“知道得更多”。
2. 减少认知负担：听从权威能节省我们判断的时间和精力，属于“认知捷径”。
3. 社会规范影响：从小被教育要尊重老师、听话、服从领导，会在大脑中形成固有反应。
4. 责任转移效应：如果“权威”让我们做错事，我们倾向于认为“责任在他们”。

Experimental basis

权威效应的经典实验——米尔格拉姆服从实验，专门研究权威效应对人类行为的影响。实验安排了一个“教师”（被试）和一个“学生”（实验助手伪装的）。教师需要对学生进行提问，每当学生答错，教师就要按下电击按钮，电压逐渐升高。实际上没有真正的电击，学生是假装受罚。如果教师迟疑不愿继续，实验主持人（穿着实验白袍、表现得像专家）会用坚定语气说：“请继续。”

结果令人震惊：约65%的参与者在权威的指令下，最终按下了最强烈的电击按钮（450伏），尽管他们明显感到不安，甚至怀疑是否会对学生造成伤害。这个实验揭示了：在“权威”的命令下，人们会违背自己道德判断，服从执行命令，即使这个命令本身看起来不合理甚至残酷。

现实应用

医疗场景：

• 很多人听医生建议后不加质疑地服药，哪怕自己并不理解药物的副作用。
• “穿白袍”的医生被普遍视为权威，即便是在广告中，也常用“穿白大褂”的角色来提高说服力。

营销广告：

• “某某博士推荐”、“专家认证”、“明星代言”会提高产品可信度。

• 比如：保健品广告中常出现“权威专家背书”，吸引消费者购买。

  职场与教育：

• 员工更容易接受上级的决策，即使心里有所怀疑。

• 学生往往不质疑老师的讲解，即使内容可能过时或错误。

批判性分析

盲目听从权威可能带来灾难性后果。权威人士也会犯错，甚至利用权威误导他人。我们需要培养“有判断力的服从”，即尊重权威，但保持独立思考。

门面效应（Door-in-the-Face Effect）

什么是门面效应？

门面效应是一种先提出一个不合理的大请求，被拒绝后再提出一个较小、目标请求的策略。由于对方出于内疚或妥协心理，较容易答应第二个请求。门面效应是一种心理上“先高后低”的让步策略，通过制造对比与互惠压力，提高目标请求被接受的概率。它在日常生活、人际交往、销售、职场沟通等领域广泛适用。

背景来源

由心理学家Cialdini于1975年提出。其实验发现，如果先请求学生义务辅导两年，学生普遍拒绝；但如果之后请求只陪青少年参观一次监狱，反而更多人同意。

核心原理

这种策略依赖于社会交换原理：你拒绝了一个请求，对方“退了一步”，你也“该回报一点”，从而更容易接受第二个要求。门面效应之所以有效，背后涉及多个心理机制：

1. 互惠原则（Reciprocity） ：当别人对我们“让步”时，我们感到有义务也做出回报（即使这其实是对方的策略）。你提出一个大请求后，退一步，我们就更愿意配合。
2. 对比效应（Contrast Effect） ：第二个请求在对比之下看起来“没那么难”了，更容易让人接受。
3. 社会规范压力（Social Norms） ：人们希望被看作是讲道理、合作的个体。当别人“退一步”时，我们觉得拒绝第二次会显得太冷漠或不近人情。

Experimental basis

Cialdini等人在大学校园中的实验证实，先大后小的请求组相比只提小请求组，成功率提升两倍以上。他们的经典实验如下：

实验者首先向一组大学生提出一个几乎不可能接受的请求： “你愿意每周花两小时为少年犯提供为期两年的志愿服务吗？”绝大多数人都拒绝了。

然后，研究者再提出一个较小的请求： “那你是否愿意仅仅花一个下午，带少年犯去动物园参观一次？”

结果显示：相比直接提出第二个请求的对照组，先被拒绝一次的人更有可能接受第二个请求。

这就说明：人们在拒绝了第一个请求后，为了“补偿”或出于礼貌、内疚，会更愿意接受后续的请求。

现实应用

• 销售场景：先推荐高价套餐，被拒绝后再推荐标准套餐，用户更易接受。
• 募捐请求：先请你捐100元，被拒绝后再请捐10元，后者更容易获得成功。
• 社交请求：朋友先问“能帮我搬家吗？”被拒绝后改为“那能不能帮我打个车？”

批判性分析

虽然有效，但这种策略可能被认为操控性强。如果使用频繁或过于刻意，会损害信任关系。需要掌握分寸与情境感知，确保沟通诚意。如果第一个请求过于夸张，比如“你能借我10万块吗？”，会让人觉得不真诚甚至讨厌，从而失去信任，后续请求反而更难达成。有研究发现，西方文化中更强调个人责任和对比判断，因此门面效应效果更强；而在某些集体主义文化中，人际关系与面子因素可能起更大作用。

登门槛效应（Foot-in-the-Door Effect）

什么是登门槛效应？

登门槛效应指的是先提出一个很小的请求，对方同意后，再提出真正的、较大的请求，这样成功的几率更高。

背景来源

1966年Freedman与Fraser的研究表明，当研究人员先让居民在门口贴一个很小的环保贴纸，再过几天请他们在院子放一个巨大的环保牌子时，成功率显著提高。

核心原理

人们一旦做出承诺或行为后，就更倾向维持一致性，以维护自我形象。这种“自我一致性”机制推动了第二次请求的接受。这个效应背后的心理机制主要有以下几个：

1. 自我认知一致性原理：人们不喜欢自己“前后不一致”。如果一开始答应了环保的小请求，人们就倾向于认为“我是个支持环保的人”，于是面对更大的环保请求时，为了保持这种自我形象，就更容易答应。
2. 承诺与一致性原则：根据社会心理学家Cialdini的理论，人一旦对某件事表达了承诺（即使很小），就会感到有责任维持一致。改变主意会让人不舒服。
3. 心理起始点建立：一开始的小请求降低了防御心，建立了信任或“合作”的基础，之后再提出大请求，人就不再那么警觉。

Experimental basis

Freedman & Fraser的实验是登门槛效应的经典实证。实验组（有小请求）接受大请求的比例为76%，远高于对照组（仅提出大请求）的17%。

现实应用

• 志愿活动：先请参与点赞、转发，再请参与线下活动。
• 电商营销：先提供免费试用或低价体验，再推年费或高价服务。
• 心理咨询：初次沟通建立信任，后续更易接受持续辅导或深层治疗。

批判性分析

与“门面效应”相反，这种渐进策略更容易被接受，但如果后续请求跳跃过大，仍可能引起反感。适用于建立长期关系的场景。

低球技术（Low-ball Technique）

什么是低球技术？

低球技术是一种常见的说服策略，特别在销售和人际交往中非常常见。它的核心原理是：先让对方接受一个看起来不错的请求或提议（低球），在对方同意之后，再改变条件，让这个请求变得对对方不那么有利，但由于对方已经“做出承诺”了，仍然很可能会继续答应下去。

这个策略的名字“Low-ball”（低球），就像是在打棒球时投出一个看似容易打到的球，等对方挥棒时才发现它根本不是那么回事。

背景来源

由心理学家Cialdini在1978年提出。它利用人们对一致性的需求和对改变承诺的抗拒心理，让人更容易答应本不会接受的条件。灵感来源于销售行业中常见的“价格诱导策略”。

背后的心理原理：

• 承诺与一致性（Commitment and Consistency） ： 一旦我们做出承诺，就倾向于保持一致，否则会感到不舒服（认知失调）。
• 心理投入（Sunk Cost Effect） ：如果我们已经花了时间、精力，甚至是情感在一个决定上，就会更不愿意放弃这个决定。
• 不愿认错心理（Loss Aversion + Ego Defense） ：拒绝更改决定可以让我们避免“承认自己被套路了”或“决策失误”的不适感。

Experimental basis

心理学家Cialdini（西奥迪尼）是最早系统研究这种说服策略的学者之一。

他在1978年做过一个著名实验：
研究人员请一组大学生参加一个“清晨7点集合的实验”。

• 对第一组学生，一开始就说明是7点，只有约25%的学生愿意参加。
• 对第二组学生，先说有个有趣的实验，请他们参加——大部分人都答应了。等他们答应之后再告诉他们“时间是早上7点”。结果有超过50%的人真的去了。

这就是典型的“低球技术”在现实中的应用。

现实应用

批判性分析：低球技术是否“道德”？

低球技术虽然在说服上有效，但也存在一定争议：

advantage:

• 在销售、劝说中确实能提高对方配合度；
• 某些情境下是让对方跨出第一步的有效方式（如心理辅导中帮助患者开始小行为改变）。

shortcoming:

• 可能伤害信任：如果被识破，用户或对象可能感到被欺骗，从而失去信任；
• 长期效果差：如果客户或用户感觉被骗了，可能不会复购或留下负面评价；
• 道德灰色地带：在强调透明和诚信的社会氛围中，这种策略容易引发批评。

结语：了解心理效应，就是掌控“说服力”

这些“态度与说服心理学效应”并不是心理学家的理论玩具，而是真实影响我们每天判断、购买、互动的心理机制。这些心理效应不是“阴谋工具”，而是我们每个人日常生活中真实发生的心理机制。理解它们，可以帮助你：

• 识破套路：面对推销、广告、社交操控时，不再轻易被说服。
• 提升沟通技巧：以更有智慧的方式影响他人，而非强迫或操控。
• 建立健康人际关系：理解心理效应背后的“人性”，更有同理心地与他人互动。

掌握这些效应，是理解人类行为与心理的第一步，让我们在这个信息爆炸的时代，更清醒、更有力量地做出选择。 当你意识到这些效应的存在，你就不再轻易被误导，也能在说服他人时更加得心应手。

想掌握更多心理学原理、效应与实用技巧？欢迎收藏本页或继续阅读我们的《心理学效应大全》系列！

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